In class you:
Thought with your partner to come up with the 20 most important things for your topic. You brainstormed and then took half of the list.
Post your half of the list below.
- If you are the first poster for your topic, make a new comment below.
- If someone in your class or another period has already commented, reply to that comment.
This is intended to keep things organized by topic.
Your participation grade will be based on quality of content and speed with which submission is made (the earlier in the day the better, but after 4 p.m.).
EDIT: From what I'm seeing - you guys nailed it! Nice work! Now...use this to study!! You could even use it to make flashcards if that's your thing.
EDIT: From what I'm seeing - you guys nailed it! Nice work! Now...use this to study!! You could even use it to make flashcards if that's your thing.
OZONE DEPLETION INFO-JACK WEGER
ReplyDelete1. Destroys the layer of ozone in the lower stratosphere, this layer keeps 95 percent of ultraviolet radiation from the sun from reaching the surface.
2. Ozone depletion is greatest at the poles where the layer of O3 is thinnest and least at the tropics.
3. Chlorofluorocarbons are the primary contributors to depletion, they were discovered by Midgley in 1930; and the two most commonly used are CCLF3 and CCL2F2, both of these are freons.
4. CFCs are nonreactive, odorless, nontoxic, and are used as coolants, propellants, and fumigants. The first indication that CFCs were causing the depletion was in 1974 when Rowland and Molina showed that they were lowering ozone concentrations n the stratosphere, they received a Nobel Prize for this work.
5. CFCs remain in the troposphere for long periods of time because they are unreactive and not water soluble, through convection they have been moved upward to the stratosphere.
6. In the stratosphere, CFC molecules break down under the influence of UV radiation, the resulting chlorine and fluorine atoms break up the ozone to bond with individual oxygen atoms.
7. DuPont attacked Rowland and Molina for their conclusion but eventually acknowledged the depletion in 1988 and agreed to stop producing CFCs.
8. Halons, methyl bromide, hydrogen chloride, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, n-propyl bromide, and hexachlorobutadiene are some other ozone depletors.
9. Natural chlorine compounds such as those from oceans and volcanic eruptions do not reach the stratosphere since they dissolve in water.
10. The depletion of ozone above Antarctica has commonly been called an “ozone hole” due to the extent of the damage. This is partially due to a polar vortex (swirling mass of cold air) that is isolated from the rest of the atmosphere in winter. Ice crystals form in the vortex, collecting CFCs in the stratosphere. The molecules are stimulated when sunlight returns in October, and new ozone begins to form in the summer when temperatures warm.
11. Broken up ozone depleted air from the Arctic moves north to increase UV B radiation over parts of South America, Southern Africa, and Oceania. This process also occurs in the Arctic but to a lesser extent.
12. Less ozone results in higher concentrations of UV A and UV B radiation, increasing sunburn, cataract, and skin cancer rates.
13. Even with immediate action, it will take 100 years for the ozone layer to return to its pre- 1950 status.
14. In 1987, 36 nations met in Canada and created the Montreal Protocol, which called for cutting CFCs in the atmosphere by 35 percent before 2000. This was later reinforced in 1992 under the Copenhagen Protocol, accelerating the phasing out of certain chemicals. The agreements are now ratified by 177 countries and are great steps in global cooperation.
15. A World Meteorological Organization study in 1998 revealed that ozone depletion has been cooling the troposphere and disguising as much as 30 percent of global warming effects.
16. UV radiation is the primary former of basal and squamous cell skin cancers, accounting for 95 percent of all cases.
17. Malignant melanoma occurs in pigmented areas and can spread quickly to other parts of the body. It kills about 25 percent of victims within five years but can be cured if detected early.
18. 90 percent of the sun’s melanoma causing effects are from UV A radiation while 10 percent is from UV B. Sunscreens can only provide protection from UV A with chemicals such as zinc oxide, some have little or no protection from this type.
19. Ozone depletion can reduce phytoplankton populations, disrupting aquatic food webs, and reduce food yields for some crops.
20. Increased ozone depletion can increase global warming through decreased ocean uptake of CO2 by phytoplankton and CFCs acting as greenhouse gases.
Grant Douglas
ReplyDeleteApril 13, 2012
Period 4
Plate Tectonics, Rock Cycle, and Mining
Plate Tectonics:
1. The theory of continental drift was first established by Alfred Wegener in 1915 when he suggested a single super continent called Pangaea which spurred further discussion regarding plate tectonics.
2. Transform boundaries occur where plates slide or grind past each other along transform faults.
3. Divergent boundaries occur when plates move apart from each other or separate.
4. Convergent boundaries occur when plates slide toward each other, commonly forming a subduction zone where one plate moves beneath another.
5. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along plate boundaries.
6. The lateral movement of the plates is typically at speeds of 50—100 mm a year.
7. The plates are around 60mi thick and consist of lithospheric mantle overlain by either of two types of crustal material: oceanic crust and continental crust, with continental crust considerably thicker than oceanic.
Rock Cycle:
1. The rock cycle is a concept in geology that describes the dynamic transitions through time among the three main types of rock: sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous.
2. Transition to Igneous: when rock is pushed deep under ground and melted into magma, then cooled into rock again.
3. Transition to metamorphic: rocks exposed to high temperatures and pressures can be changed physically or chemically to form a different rock, called metamorphic.
4. Transition to Sedimentary: rocks exposed to the processes of weathering and erosion break down into smaller fragments and continually break down until fused with other fragments into sedimentary rocks.
5. Some of the major driving forces behind the rock cycle are plate tectonics and the water cycle.
6. The original concept of the rock cycle is usually attributed to James Hutton.
Mining:
1. Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, from an ore body, vein or seam.
2. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and later, metals found on or near the earth’s surface.
3. Mining techniques can be divided into two common excavation types: surface mining and sub-surface mining but surface mining is much more common, and produces 85% of minerals in the United States, including 98% of metallic ores.
4. Sub-surface mining consists of digging tunnels or shafts into the earth to reach buried ore deposits.
5. Heavy machinery is needed in mining for exploration and development, to remove and stockpile overburden, to break and remove rocks of various hardness and toughness, to process the ore and for reclamation efforts after the mine is closed, and this significantly contributes to the emission of greenhouse gases like CO2.
6. Environmental issues can include erosion, formation of sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, and contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals from mining processes and in some cases, additional forest logging is done near mines to increase the available room for the storage of the created debris and soil.
Plate Tectonics:
Delete1. Definition: The theory explaining the movements of the plates and the processes that occur at their boundaries. It arose out of two separate geological observations: continental drift and seafloor spreading.
2. Wegener based his theory of continental drift on five factors: fossilized tropical plants were discovered beneath Greenland’s icecaps; glaciated landscapes occurred in the tropics of Africa and South America; tropical regions on some continents had polar climates in the past; the continents fit together like a puzzle; and similarities exist in rocks between the east coasts of North and South America and the west coasts of Africa and Europe.
3. Subduction zones are areas on the Earth where two tectonic plates meet and move toward each other, with one sliding underneath the other and moving down the mantle.
4. Plate movements and interactions affect the earth’s climate and concentrate many of the minerals we extract and use.
5. Examples of divergent boundaries: Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise, East African Great Rift Valley. They can create massive fault zones in the oceanic ridge system and are a frequent source of oceanic earthquakes.
6. Example of convergent boundaries: Cascade Mountain range which extends north from California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains and includes Mount Saint Helens.
Rock Cycle:
1. Igneous rock: formed by cooling and classified by their silica content. They are broken down by weathering and water transport. Most soils come from igneous rock.
2. Metamorphic: formed by intense heat and pressure. Those with high quartz content form sandy soil. Slate forms silty soil. Marble forms limestone clay. Common examples include: diamond, marble, and slate.
3. Sedimentary: formed by piling and cementing of various materials over time in low-lying areas. Fossils form only in sedimentary rock.
4. The rock cycle is the slowest of the earth’s cyclic processes
The Rock Cycle:
DeleteDefinition: The process by which changes occur in the three major types of rock--metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary—and how they can change into one another through various geologic processes.
1. Metamorphic rock:
a. Can become igneous rock by melting into magma and then cooling.
b. It can become sedimentary rock by eroding into sediment and then compacting and cementing into its new form.
2. Sedimentary rock:
a. Can become metamorphic rock through heat and pressure.
3. Igneous rock:
a. Can become sedimentary rock by eroding into sediment and then compacting and cementing.
4. James Hutton:
a. Often called the founder of modern geology.
b. He developed the rock cycle as part of his far-reaching ideas on the planet's formation and change.
Mining:
DeleteDefinition: Removing of a mineral/ resource from the ground through many different techniques
1. Before mining, economic decisions are made to determine how profitable the site could be.
a. Current & projected price
b. Amount of mineral/resource at the site
c. Concentration of the mineral
d. Type of mining required to extract ore
e. Cost of transportation
f. Cost of reclamation
2. Three main methods of extraction:
a. Surface mining
i. Strip mining- mine coal or tar sands
ii. Open- pit mining- rock or minerals
iii. Mountain top- coal seam outcrops all the way around mountain top
iv. Dredging- bring up under water minerals
v. High wall- continuous mining under remote control drive
b. Underground mining
i. Large shafts are dug into the ground
ii. Water must be constantly pumped out of the mine due to it being below the surface.
a) When the mine is abandoned, pumping ceases and the water will refill the hole leading to a decreased risk of land damage.
3. Underground mining cause less distress on land, less destruction of the land and therefore less waste rock.
4. Processing the ore extracted from mining requires smelting.
a. Resource acquired as ore- as an element or a simple compound.
b. Heated normally beyond its melting point.
5. 2 billion tons of minerals/resources are extracted and used each year in the United States.
a. Approximately 10 tons per American.
b. The U.S. also imports approx. 50% of its most needed resources.
i. As minerals become depleted lesser grade/quality ores are mined.
a) Causes and produces increased amounts of harmful pollutants
6. The U.S., Germany, and Russia represent 8% of the world’s population although they consume about 75% of its resources.
a. U.S. consuming 20%
7. Large portion of mining is concentrated in drilling for crude oil.
a. 45 to 70% of oil reserves have been depleted
i. Approximately 50 years left of usable oil
b. Countries in the middle east own 50% of what is left
c. U.S. owns only about 3%
i. 2/3 of the oil used in the U.S. is used for transportation
a) Gasoline, Diesel, Jet fuel, etc.
ii. ¼ is used for industry
a) Plastics, medicines, and cosmetics
iii. Oil imports in the U.S. increased from 52% to 70%
d. Increased competition of oil from India and China leads to an increased price.
8. Coal is the currently the world’s largest source of fuel used to produce electricity.
a. China is the world’s largest producer.
b. Levels are expected to last approximately 300 more years
i. Based on current extraction rates
9. General Mining Act of 1872
a. Approved on May 10, 1872
b. United States federal law that authorizes and governs prospecting and mining for economic minerals, such as gold, platinum, and silver, on federal public lands.
c. Codified the informal system of acquiring and protecting mining claims on public land, formed by prospectors in California and Nevada from the late 1840s through the 1860s, such as during the California Gold Rush.
d. All citizens of the United States of America 18 years or older have the right under the 1872 mining law to locate a lode (hard rock) or placer (gravel) mining claim on federal lands open to mineral entry.
10. Mineral Leasing Act of 1920
a. United States federal law that authorizes and governs leasing of public lands for developing deposits of coal, petroleum, natural gas and other hydrocarbons, in addition to phosphates, sodium, sulfur, and potassium in the United States.
11. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA)
a. Primary federal law that regulates the environmental effects of coal mining in the United States.
b. SMCRA created two programs:
i. 1) Regulating active coal mines.
ii. 2) Reclaiming abandoned mine lands.
c. SMCRA also created the Office of Surface Mining, an agency within the Department of the Interior, to promulgate regulations, to fund state regulatory and reclamation efforts, and to ensure consistency among state regulatory programs.
Austin Pezoldt
ReplyDeleteApril 13, 2012
Period 6
Ecosystems
Biodiversity
1. The areas of richest biodiversity on the planet are the tropical rain forests. This is due to the warm annual temperatures, the massive energy transfers, and heavy rainfall.
2. Biodiversity is important because having more a more diverse environment allows the area to be more sustainable for a multitude of organisms. Rather than being an area adapted to a specific organism, many can survive in the same are which increases the number of species that can thrive on the planet.
3. Coral Reefs are extremely important to aquatic biodiversity. The coral reefs provide a home and a food source for many marine organisms. The destruction of coral reefs can lead to a large drop in marine biodiversity in an area, this lowers nutrient and energy flow within the ecosystem.
4. Mountains make up almost 1/4 of the Earth's land area and they are home to most of the world's forests and much of it's terrestrial biodiversity. Mountains are very prone to erosion due to their steep slopes when the vegetation holding them in place is moved by natural disturbances or human activities.
5. The coastal regions that border on the deserts like in California is chaparral. The contain many creatures and plants that are important to the ecosystems of the area. However the chaparral is very susceptible to fire in the summer due to their dry environment and hot temperatures. Humans causing fires in the areas can cause many problems to the biodiversity of the chaparral.
Island Biogeography
1. A biogeographical island is an area of hospitable land surrounded by an area on inhospitable land. It does not have to be an island in a literal sense being a land mass surrounded by water, this could be an oasis in the desert or something to the extent.
2. The theory of island biogeography states that the number of species on that island is only determined by the species that go extinct and the species that immigrate into the area.
3. Influencing factors are how isolated the island is, how long the island has been isolated for, the size of the island (the larger the island the more of a chance there is for greater biodiversity), and the area in which the island is isolated in.
4. How suitable the habitat of the environment is plays a major role in the biodiversity of the island. The climate of the island can determine what species can exist there, the initial plant and animal life on the planet determines what will thrive there, and what species are existing well on that island currently.
5. Human impact on an island can play a major role in the biodiversity of that island. For example if there is an island that is thriving, then humans come in and introduce a new species to the area, the islands biodiversity will be affected, not necessarily in a negative way, but it will have an impact.
Michael Dembrow
DeletePeriod 6
Succession
1. Ecological succession is the gradual change in species composition of a given area.
2. Primary succession involves the gradual establishment of biotic communities on nearly lifeless ground.
3. Secondary succession is where biotic communities are established in an area where some type of biotic community is already present.
4. Primary succession usually takes an extremely long time because before a community can become established on land, there must be soil.
5. Soil formation begins when pioneer species attach themselves to inhospitable patches of bare rock.
6. Early successional plant species are plants or germinate after arriving from the wind and rain, in bird droppings, and the coats of mammals.
7. Midsuccessional plant species of herbs, grasses, and low shrubs may be able to be supported after hundreds to a thousands of years after the soil is deep and fertile enough to store enough moisture and nutrients to suppoort the growth of thes plants.
8. Trees that need sunlight and that are adapted to the area's climate and soil replace midsuccessional species.
9. Candidates for secondary succession include abandoned farmlands, burned or cut forests, heavily pollutes streams, and land that has been damned or flooded.
10. The various stages of succession have different patterns of species diversity, trophic structure, niches, nutrient cycling, and energy flow and efficiency.
Derek Chait
ReplyDeleteApril 14, 2012
Period 6
1. Thailand managed to slow its rapid population growth rate of 3.2% in 1971 down to a mere 0.8% by 2004 through pushing for government-sponsored family planning programs, high literacy rates among women, an increase in economic opportunities for women, and through bettering health care standards.
2. The rate of the world’s annual population growth is about 1.25%, with 97% of babies added to the population each day being born in developing countries in stages 2 and 3 of the demographic transition model. Despite this percent growth being less that it was in the middle of the twentieth century, it still indicates that global exponential growth is still occurring. This can be attributed to the worldwide decline in death rates that followed the Medical Revolution and other advancements in medicine.
3. One way to measure population growth is through using doubling time: the time (in years) it takes for a population growing at a specified rate to double its size. Doubling time can be calculated using the rule of 70: 70/percentage growth rate = doubling time in years
4. Developed countries with a low total fertility rate can increase their population by encouraging legal immigration. Only a few countries, including the United States, actually encourage this, with the U.S. allowing over twice as many immigrants into the country than any other nation. Critics stress how reducing immigration would allow the U.S. to stabilize its population sooner, ultimately allowing the country to reduce its growing negative environmental impact. Countries like Japan do not allow immigrants into their country, despite their negative population growth, as they fear immigrants will ruin their traditional culture.
5. Total fertility rate is the number of children a woman typically has during her reproductive years. It was highest in the U.S. following World War II until about the middle of the 1965, with this era being referred to as the “baby-boom period.”
6. Birth rates are higher in developing countries, where children are largely needed to help in the labor force, while in developing countries, the high cost of raising children helps to keep birth rate levels significantly lower.
7. The first stage of the demographic transition model is the preindustrial stage. There is little population growth because the harsh living conditions and widespread disease cause both a high death (mortality) rate and a high birth rate t make up for the high infant mortality.
8. The second stage of this model is the transitional stage. In this stage, death rates drop significantly and birth rates remain high, leading to a rapid population growth. This decrease in death rate was due to the beginning of industrialization (the late eighteenth century), a rise in food production, and an improvement in health care quality.
9. In the third stage, or the industrial stage, the birth rate declines and starts to approach the death rate as industrialization, medical advances, and modernization become widespread. Population growth continues, but at a much slower rate, as a decrease in infant mortality causes people to have fewer children. Moreover, people begin to see children as economic liabilities, and with many people living in cities, they no longer need large amounts of children to help work on the fields.
10. The last stage, or the preindustrial stage, is when the birth rate declines even further, equaling the death rate. This results in zero population growth. Slowly, the birth rate then proceeds to fall below the death rate and population size decreases slowly. Women enter the workforce in stage 4 societies, not having as much time to have large numbers of kids, and birth-control methods are used more.
^Human Population Growth
DeleteDyaami D'Orazio
DeleteApril 15, 2012
Period 6
Human Population Growth
11. Human Population Growth (HPG) is linked to the natural environment and surges in agricultural discoveries. As people developed distribution of food and a higher standard of living, the population has increased.
12. The population, around 2,000 years ago, was roughly 300 million people. In 1804, it totaled at 1 billion. In 1927, it totaled 2 billion. In 1960, it totaled 3 billion. 1974, there were 4 billion people. In 1987 we had 5 billion people. In 1999, there were 6 billion, and now in 2012 we have officially reached 7 billion people. Notice how the time frame for increasing in a billion gets smaller, implying the changes in health and human success.
13. Population pyramids give researchers a variety of information. The middle column gives the ages groups (0-4, 5-10, etc). The x-axis that goes right and left give population numbers in thousands (or a certain quantity). The colored bars imply male and female population and the numbers. Sometimes, these pyramids include years and one can see the change of the population over time.
14. Each country has a population pyramid for a set or a specific year, which allows people to see the trends (increasing and decreasing) of population in certain countries due to new developments and advancements in their culture or other factors that contribute to HPG.
15. HPG, globally, is following a J-shaped curve. This means we started out with a relatively small number or people, and we are now increasing at a rapid rate leading to large population numbers in a very short time.
16. Carrying capacity describes the amount of life a certain area is able to support. Certain ecosystems with too many of any organism ends up destroyed from over population. The question for us is when the Earth will reach its carrying capacity for humans and how will we distribute resources when things get tight. My solution: live sustainably so that we do not run out of global resources.
17. Studies show that there is a decrease in children born to families, or women, who are increasingly educated and have a larger role in the family (having a job). The more educated women become about birth control and their education, the less they are inclined to have 6 or 7 children, but have 2 or 3 instead.
18. Currently, much of the population is below child-rearing age (under 15) and when we all reach the age to have children there will be another significant increase in population.
19. Some countries view a large population as beneficial because they have more power with more people; there is also an increase in economic development and cheap labor. The more people a country has the larger their profits and involvement in world trade.
20. FAMILY PLANNING AND EDUCATION.
Bianca Montesinos
ReplyDeleteApril 14, 2012
Period 6
Solid Waste Management
1. Solid Waste: Any unwanted or discarded material that is not a liquid or gas.
2. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Garbage or trash usually produced by homes or workplaces.
3. Waste Management (high-waste approach): Involves mixing and often crushing waste together, then burying them, burning them, or shipping them off.
4. Source Reduction: Involves altering the design, manufacture, or use of products and materials to reduce the amount and toxicity of what gets thrown away.
5. Waste reduction (low-waste approach): Views solid waste as potential resources that should be reused, recycled, or composted.
6. The four R's: refuse, reduce, reuse, recycle.
7. The four R's save matter and energy resources, reduces pollution (greenhouse gas emissions), protects biodiversity, and saves money.
8. Most MSW are paper or paperboard, yard trimmings, plastics, and food scraps.
9. Under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), landfills that accept MSW are primarily regulated by state, tribal, and local governments.
10. Sustainability Six: consume less, redesign manufacturing processes and products to us less material and energy and produce less waste and pollution, develop products that are easy to repair, reuse, remanufacture, compost, or recycle, design products to last longer, and eliminate or reduce unnecessary packaging.
11. We can make industrial manufacturing processes more sustainable by redesigning them to mimic how nature deals with wastes. This is called ecoindustrial revolution. One way is to recycle and reuse chemicals instead of dumping into the environment. Another is to have industries interact in complex resource exchange webs where wastes become raw materials for others.
Delete12. Biomimicry also reduces the cost of controlling pollution and complying with pollution regulations. If a company does not add pollution to the environment, it does not have to worry about government regulations or being sued because of harmful wastes.
13. Biomimicry also stimulates companies to come up with new, environmentally beneficial chemicals, processes, and products that can be sold worldwide.
14. Reusing reduces the use of matter and energy resources, cuts pollution and waste, creates local jobs, and saves money. Traditional forms include salvaging automobile parts from older cars and salvaging bricks, doors, line woodwork, and other items from old houses and buildings.
15. However, reuse can be a health hazard for the poor. About 80% of the e-waste in the United States, including TVs and computers is shipped to countries where labor is cheap and environmental regulations are weak or poorly enforced. Workers there dismantle the products and are exposed to the toxic metals such as lead, mercury, and cadmium. The scrap is then dumped in waterways and fields, or burned in open fires, which exposes more people to the toxins.
16.Cloth bags can be used to carry groceries and other items instead of paper or plastic bags to reduces throwaway items. To encourage people to bring paper reusable bags, some stares charge for shopping bags, like China and the Netherlands.
17. Globally, municipal waste is burned in over 1000 large waste-to-energy incinerators, which boil water to make steam for heating water or space for producing electricity.
18.Incineration reduces large volumes of trash, making less need for landfills. It also leads to lower water pollution and is quick and easy.
19. Some disadvantages of incineration include:
-high cost
-air pollution
-produces highly toxic ash
-encourages waste production
-discourages recycling and waste reduction
20. Most of the world's municipal waste is buried in landfills that will eventually leak toxic liquids into soil and underlying aquifers.
liam Hunt
ReplyDeleteperiod:4
1. level Dissolved Oxygen is related to the amount of oxygen-demanding wastes and plant nutrients in a sample of water.
2. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by aquatic decomposers.
3. POINT SOURCE- discharge pollutants at specific locations through drain pipes, ditches, or sewer lines into bodies of water.
4. NONPOINT SOURCES- scattered and diffuse, cant be traced to any single site of discharge (acid deposition and runoff, livestock feedlots, urban streets)
5. Agricultural activities is the leading cause of water pollution, 2nd Industrial facilities, 3rd mining.
6. 95% of people in developed countries and 74% of developing countries have access to clean drinking water. 1.4 billion people in developing countries do not have access to safe drinking water.
7. See page 496 the relationship between dissolved oxygen and Biological Oxygen Demand in a free flowing body of water when a pollutant is discharged at a specific point.
8. EUTROPHICATION- the natural nutrient enrichment of lakes mostly from runoff of plant nutrients.
9. Excessive inputs of nutrients can upset aquatic ecosystems caused by nearby urban agricultural areas accelerating the input of plant nutrients this process is called cultural eutrophication.
10. EPA- about 1/3rd of the 100,000 medium to large lakes and about 85% of the large lakes near major population centers of the U.S.
Lu Wei Huang
DeletePeriod 4
1. Asian rivers are the most polluted in the world. They have three times as many bacteria from human waste as the global average.
2. Asian Rivers has 20 times more lead than rivers in industrialized countries.
3. 40% of America's rivers are too polluted for fishing, swimming, or aquatic life.
4. The Mississippi River carries about 1.5 million metric tons of nitrogen pollution into the Gulf of Mexico each year.
5. 1.2 trillion gallons of untreated sewage, stormwater, and industrial waste are discharged into US waters annually.
6. Water pollution is believed to be the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases responsible for around 15,000 deaths each day.
7. An American taking a five-minute shower uses more water than the average person in a developing country slum uses for an entire day
8. Diarrhea, caused by water pollution, is worldwide responsible for 1,5 million deaths of children each year.
9. 3.575 million people die from water related disease.
10. 780 million people lack access to an improved water source; approximately one in nine people.
Alex Parker
DeletePer.6
Water Pollution
1.) There are eleven major water pollutants.
a. Thermal pollution - heated water from power plant cooling or other industrial processes
b. Sewage - human waste that contains nutrients and pathogens
c. Sediment - suspended soil particles cause by excessive erosion
d. Radioactive waste - leakage of radioactive wastes into natural waterways
e. Nutrients - phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers that can lead to eutrophication
f. Organic Chemicals - includes a wide variety of toxic chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides, and dioxins
g. Organic matter - includes materials such as agricultural waste which can increase biological oxygen demand
h. Heavy metals - includes elements such as lead, arsenic, mercury, selenium, and cadmium, all of which are extremely toxic to living things
i. Inorganic chemicals - these include most acids, bases, and salts
j. Oil - oil pollution occurs from major spills and from routine maritime operations
k. Garbage - this is trash thrown into any body of water or waterway from boats or from offshore
2.) Fresh water treatment for urban use includes settling, filtration, and disinfection with chlorine, ozone, iodine, or UV radiation.
3.) Wastewater treatment involves three major steps plus sludge processing and disinfection of the final effluent before it is released into the environment. The three major steps are Primary Treatment (physical separation of solids from liquids), Secondary Treatment (biological breakdown of wastes), and Tertiary or Advanced Treatment (chemical detoxification of harmful organic and inorganic materials).
4.) BOD – biological oxygen demand this is the amount of oxygen needed to degrade or decompose a specific amount of organic waste that has entered into a body of water such as a stream or lake.
5.) Safe Drinking Water Act- Sets standards for contaminants in drinking water.
6.) Water Quality Act- established a policy to control non-point sources of water pollution.
7.) Fecal Coliform test – based on the amount of Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria in a 100ml sample of water. Drinking water: maximum number of E. coli allowed = 0; swimming water: 200 E. coli allowed.
8.) 80% of water pollution in seas and oceans comes from land-based activities.
9.) Polluted drinking waters are a problem for about half of the world’s population. Each year there are about 250 million cases of water-based diseases, resulting in roughly 5 to 10 million deaths.
10.) 40% of U.S. Rivers are too polluted for aquatic life to survive.
11) Agriculture is the leading source of water pollution, followed by industries and mining.
Delete12) Eutrophication is the natural enrichment of lakes by runoff plant nutrients (nitrates and phosphates). However, near urban or agricultural areas, human activities can greatly accelerate the input of plant nutrients to a lake. This process is called cultural eutrophication.
13) Dilution of pollutants in lakes is less effective than in most streams because most lake water is not mixed well and has little flow.
14) The key to reducing nonpoint source pollution, which cannot be traced to a single site of discharge, is to prevent it from reaching bodies of surface water.
15) Scientists monitor water quality by using bacterial counts, chemical analysis, and indicator organisms, like fecal coliform bacteria.
16) One out of every five people in the world lack access to safe drinking water. In 2005 1.4 billion people in developing countries did not have access to drinking water.
17) Although most developed countries have sharply reduced their point-source pollution, toxic chemicals and pollution from nonpoint sources are becoming serious problems.
18) One or more organic chemicals contaminate about 45% of municipal groundwater supplies in the United States.
19) Algal blooms happen when runoffs of sewage and agricultural wastes go into coastal waters and introduce large quantities of nitrate and phosphate plant nutrients, which cause explosive growth of harmful algae (called red, brown, or green toxic tides depending on their color).
20) Dredge soils are materials often laden with toxic metals, scraped from the bottoms of harbors and rivers to maintain shipping channels that are dumped in the ocean.
Robert Lamb
ReplyDeletePeriod 6
1. In 2006 Fossil guels supplied 86% of the worlds energy.
2. Since fossil fuels are not renewable resources in the near future we will have none left.
3. Producing energy with fossil fuels is cheap compaired to other types of energy.
4. In the United States, coal is used to create over half of our electrical energy.
5. When fossil fuels are being used to produce energy they release pollutants like carbon dioxide.
6. Coal supplies should be able to last us over 1500 more years, but since our population increases every year it will roughly last us 90 more.
7. The amount of energy produced with coal depends on the type, the most common types are anthractice and lignite.
8. All the fossil fuels used in 1997 took 422 years to create.
9. When coal is burned it releases sulfer dioxide, a gas that helps form acid rain.
10. Petroleum produces about 40% ou our nations energy.
Erick Cinco
ReplyDeleteApril 14, 2012
Period 6
The Atmosphere and Air Pollution (other than Ozone and Global Climate Change)
The Atmosphere
The atmosphere is divided into five layers: Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere and Exosphere
1. The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere and holds most of the mass (about 75-80%) of the atmosphere. Almost all weather occurs in this layer. Air is warmest at the bottom as you go higher temperature decreases as well as air pressure and density . This layer is heated from below when heat radiates from the warmed ground or ocean. The boundary between the top of the troposphere and the stratosphere is the tropopause.
2. The stratosphere is the second layer, as one moves upward from Earth's surface, of the atmosphere. Ozone is relatively abundant in the stratosphere and heats this layer as it absorbs energy from UV radiation from the sun. Temperature rises as altitude increases. There is little convection and mixing which results in stable layers of air. The stratosphere is very dry with little water vapor
3. The mesosphere is the layer above the stratosphere. Temperature decreases as elevation increases in this layer. Scientists know less about the mesosphere than other layers of the atmosphere. Weather balloons and jet planes can't fly high enough to reach the mesosphere and satellites orbit above the mesosphere. Most meteors burn up in this layer.
4. The thermosphere is the layer above the mesopshere. Temperature rises sharply in the lower thermosphere, then level off and hold fairly steady with increasing altitude. The space shuttle and International Space Station both orbit Earth within the thermosphere. Gas particles barely collide in this layer. Much of the X-ray and UV radiation from the sun is absorbed in the thermosphere. Aurora's primarily occur in the thermosphere.
5. In the Exosphere the Earth's atmosphere is extremely thin. This is the region where atoms and molecules escape into space.
Erick Cinco
DeleteApril 14, 2012
Period 6
Air Pollution
1. A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted directly from a source while a secondary pollutant is not directly emitted as such, but forms when other pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the atmosphere. For example acid rain, which is formed when sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with water.
2. Photochemical smog is caused by reactions between sunlight and pollutants like hydrocarbons and nitrogen dioxide. Although photochemical smog is often invisible, it can be extremely harmful, leading to irritations of the respiratory tract and eyes. In regions of the world with high concentrations of photochemical smog, elevated rates of death and respiratory illnesses have been observed. Brown-air smog.
3. Industrial smog is formed when burned amounts of coal and heavy oil (which contain sulfur impurities) from power plants, factories and for space heating react with water vapor in the atmosphere. Smog consists mostly of sulphur dioxide, suspended droplets of sulfuric acid (formed from some of the sulfur dioxide), and a variety of suspended solid particles and droplets (called aerosols).
Urban industrial smog has decreased in developed countries because coal and heavy oil is burned only in large boilers with reasonably good pollution control or with tall smokestacks. Urban smog is mainly a problem in rapidly industrializing countries such as china due to an excess burning of coal and poor pollution control
4. Acid deposition or Acid rain consists of water droplets that are acidic due to excess sulfur and nitrogen released by cars and industrial processes. There are two types of acid deposition; wet and dry.
-Wet deposition is any form of precipitation that removes acids from the atmosphere and deposits them on the Earth’s surface
-Dry deposition polluting particles and gases stick to the ground via dust and smoke in the absence of precipitation.
Acid rain can lower the overall pH of bodies of water, if the pH of a lake drops below 4.8, its plants and animals will risk death because most aquatic life cannot stand such high acidity in the water.
Forests are affected in that it makes the soil acidic so when trees take in nutrients and water they are taking in acid solutions weakening the structure of the tree. Acid rain also damages the leaves of trees which keeps the tree from performing photosynthesis
5. Temperature inversion is when a pocket of hot air traps a lower layer of cold air which keeps normal convective overturning of the atmosphere from penetrating through the inversion. Weather-related effects effects include trapping of pollutants bellow the inversion, allowing build up, suspended particulates can also cause eye irritation and obstructed hazy sight.
Grace DeWitt
DeletePeriod 4
The Atmosphere and Air Pollution (Other than Ozone and Global Climate Change)
THE ATMOSPHERE
1. The atmosphere is separated into five layers: (in order from nearest to Earth to farthest) the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. The ozone layer is located in the stratosphere.
2. The atmosphere keeps the temperature on the earth's surface from dipping to extreme icy cold that would freeze everything solid, or from soaring to blazing heat that would burn up all life.
3. About 99 percent of air is nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). The remaining percent includes trace quantities of substances such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), hydrogen (H2), argon (Ar) and helium (He).
4. Ambient air is the air to which the general public has access, i.e. any unconfined portion of the atmosphere.
5. An air pollutant can be considered as a substance in the air that, in high enough concentrations, produces a detrimental environmental effect. Therefore natural phenomena such as volcanoes, wind storms, the decomposition of plants and animals, and even the aerosols emitted by the ocean "pollute" the air. A pollutant can affect the health of humans, as well as the health of plants and animals. Pollutants can also affect non-living materials such as paints, metals, and fabrics.
Grace DeWitt
DeletePeriod 4
The Atmosphere and Air Pollution continued
AIR POLLUTION
6. Pollutants are divided four ways. Some pollutants are particulate matter, which includes small solid and liquid particles such as dust, smoke, sand, pollen, mist, and fly ash. Others are gases, which include substances such as carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NO2), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Pollutants can also be classified as either primary pollutants or secondary pollutants. A primary pollutant is one that is emitted into the atmosphere directly from the source of the pollutant and retains the same chemical form. An example of a primary pollutant is the ash produced by the burning of solid waste. A secondary pollutant is one that is formed by atmospheric reactions of precursor or primary emissions. Secondary pollutants undergo a chemical change once they reach the atmosphere.
7. According to the UN, particulate air pollution has been reduced worldwide but remains high in large cities in developing countries. Global SO2 emissions have decreased, but concentrations remain above the WHO threshold in many cities in developing countries. Airborne lead is declining in all regions as leaded gasoline is phased out.
8. The EPA further classifies ambient air pollutants for regulatory purposes as criteria pollutants or hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). Criteria pollutants are pollutants that have been identified as being both common and detrimental to human welfare and are found over all the United States (ubiquitous pollutants). EPA currently designates six pollutants as criteria pollutants: carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3), lead (Pb), and particulate matter (PM). On the other hand, EPA refers to chemicals that cause serious health and environmental hazards as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) or air toxics. Hazardous air pollutants are those pollutants that are known or suspected to cause cancer or other serious health effects, such as reproductive effects or birth defects, or adverse environmental effects.
9. Air pollutants are also classified by source. There are six sources: natural sources of air pollution, also known as biogenic sources; human-generated pollutants or anthropogenic sources; mobile sources, which include most forms of transportation; stationary sources, which consist of non-moving sources such as power plants and industrial facilities; point sources, which refer to sources at a fixed point that emit air pollutants; and area sources, which refer to a series of small sources that together can affect air quality in a region.
10. Five easy ways to reduce air pollution include saving energy around your house, managing your heating and cooling, cutting back on the amount of packaging you purchase and the amount of household waste you produce, reducing the amount of time you spend in the car, and improving your fuel economy.
6.Meteorological phenomena are restricted to troposphere. They are the result of the sun radiation and Earth's rotation on the atmosphere. Air currents (wind) are produced when the hot air rises up and the colder air replaces it. The Equator, where the sun shines over our head, the air is the hottest, while towards the poles the air gets cooler. The hottest place on Earth is Sahara. The highest average annual temperature is registered in Dalul (Ethiopia), in a depression located 116 m (390 ft) under the sea level: 34.4o C. At Verhojansk (Siberia), the temperature reached -70o C.
Delete7. The biosphere is the part of the troposphere where life can exist. This goes upwards, from the Earth's surface to the maximum height where birds can fly. Through photosynthesis, plants take the carbon dioxide from atmosphere, releasing oxygen. Through respiration, plants and animals consume oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide.
As many tropical forests are destroyed, being replaced by pastures (like in South America), there are increasingly less oxygen producing trees, while the amounts of the greenhouse effect gas carbon dioxide are increasing. Thus, buying products made of tropical woods, you contribute to the global warming.
8.Atmosphere's balance is menaced by human activity, which causes greenhouse effect, global warming, air contamination, ozone belt destruction and acid rains. These effects are mainly due to the development of the industry, which took place in the last 2 centuries. The burning of the fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide, the main greenhouse effect gas. Agriculture's development dumps into the atmosphere large amounts of methane (the most powerful greenhouse effect gas) and nitrogen oxides.
9.The existing gases in the atmosphere must retain the heat (infrared rays) delivered by the sun radiation, reflecting them back to Earth. Without it, the Earth would be so cold that life would not be possible. But the gases dumped by burning fossil fuels increase this effect. By the middle of 21st century, the average temperature of the Earth is believed to be 1.5-4.5o C higher than now.
10.About 20 % of the Earth's population breathes severely contaminated air, especially with carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide resulting from industrial processes. This increases the number of respiratory conditions, especially amongst children and elders. 13 % of the British children experience asthma caused by air contamination.
6. Secondhand smoke causes over 150,000 respiratory problems in infants and 38,000 deaths annually.
Delete7. 10% of Americans have never changed the filter on their heating and air conditioning unit.
8. 375% of Americans live with someone who suffers from asthma, allergies, or other respiratory illnesses.
9. Poor indoor air quality can cause or contribute to asthma, headaches, dry eyes, nasal congestion, nausea and fatigue.
10. One out of 15 American homes has a dangerously high radon level. Radon naturally emits from the earth and enters the home through cracks in the foundation floor and walls, drains, and other openings. Indoor radon exposure is estimated to be the second leading cause of lung cancer.
the first one is atmosphere and the second is air pollution
Deletealso period 6 and im with cinco and this is really hard to do
seam courtney
Period 6 -Ecosystems- Energy Flow and Trophic Roles
ReplyDelete1. The sequence of organisms, each of which is a source of food for the next, is called a food chain.
2. Food chains determine how energy and nutrients move from one organism to another through an ecosystem.
3. Most species participate in several different food chains resulting in food webs, interconnected food chains which show how the organisms are connected to one another.
4. Food Chains and Food Webs have trophic levels which are determined by wheather an organism is a producer or a consumer and on what it eats or decomposes.
5. The base of a food pyramid and the first trophic level includes Producers (organisms that produce their own energy and organic material from inorganic substances (ex.photosynthesis, chemosynthesis).
6. The second level includes Primary Consumers (herbivores that eat producers).
7. The third level includes Secondary Consumers (carnivores that eat primary consumers).
8. The fourth level includes Tertiary Consumers (carnivores that eat secondary consumers)and so on.
9. Detritivores/Decomposers which both get nutrition from nonliving organic matter (plant and animal parts as well as organic fecal matter). Detritivores (like earth worms) eat the organic matter and decomposers (like bacteria or fungi) consume and break down dead organisms or waste matter into simple substances.
10. Each trophic level in a food chain or web contains a certain amount of biomass (the dry weight of all organic matter contained in its organisms) which contains chemical energy that is transferred along the levels.
11. Productivity refers to the rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem. It is usually expressed in units of mass(biomass) per unit surface (or volume) per unit time. Productivity of autotrophs such as plants is called primary productivity, while that ofheterotrophs such as animals is called secondary productivity.-
Delete12.The energy transfer through food chains and food webs is inefficient because through each transfer some useable energy is degraded and lost to the environment as low-quality heat (Second law of thermodynamics).
13.Only a small portion if what is eaten and digested is actually converted into an organism’s bodily material or biomass, and to the amount of useable energy available to each successive trophic level. This is called the ecological efficency.
14. Ecological Efficiency ranges from 2% to 40% depending on the types of species and the ecosystem involoved, but 10% is typical.
15. Energy is also lost because not everything is always eaten from one trophic level to a next.
16. The more trophic levels in a food chain or web, the greater the cumulative loss of usable energy as energy flows through various trophic levels as seen in a pyramid of energy flow
17. This explains why food chains and webs rarely have more than four or five trophic levels (because in most cases too little energy would be left).
18. Energy flow pyramids losses explain why the earth can support more people if they eat at lower trophic levels by consuming grains, vegetables and fruits rather than passing such crops through another trophic level and eating grain eaters such as cattle.
19. The accumulation of energy loss explains why there are so few top carnivores (such as eagles, hawks, tigers and white sharks) and why top carnivores are usually the first to suffer when the ecosystem supporting them is disrupted and why they are therefore vulnerable to extinction.
20. There is little matter waste in natural ecosystems because all organisms, whether dead or alive, are potential sources of food for other organisms.
Joey Bonner
ReplyDeletePeriod 6
Toxicology
1. Cigarette smoke is the world's biggest cause of premature deaths in adults that is preventabe( at least 5 million deaths from tobacco related illnesses each year according to WHO).
2. There are four major kinds of hazards: 1.cultural hazards- unsafe working conditions, smoking, poor diet, drugs, drinking, driving; 2. Physical hazards- fire, ionizing radiation, natural disasters( ie earthquakes, hurricanes, etc); 3. Chemical hazards- harmful chemicals in the air, water, soil, and food; 4. Biological hazards- pathogens(bacteria, viruses, parasites), allegens, poisonous animals.
3. Five major factors that can affect the harm caused by a substance: 1. Solubility- water-soluble toxins can get into water supplies and aqueous solutions can surround the cells in our bodies. 2. Oil- or fat-soluble toxins- can go through cell membranes and accumulate in body tissues and cells. 3. Bioaccumulation- some molecules are absorbed and stored in certain organs or tissues at abnormal levels. Chemicals that are not abundant in the environment can build up in organisms. 4. Biomagnification- levels of some potential toxin are magnified as they pass through food chains and webs, thus higher trophic predators consume more toxins than lower trophic levels. 5. Chemical Interactions- can decrease or intensify the harmful effects of a toxin. Antagonistic interaction- reduce harmful effects. Synergistic effect- effects of interaction are greater than individual effects. Accute effect- immediate or rapid reaction to exposure. Chronic effect- permanent or long-lasting consequence from exposure to a single dose or repeated sublethal doses.
4. People vary in their ability to handle toxins( Paracelsus principle). Three mechanisms in body to fight toxins: 1. break down, dilute, excrete. 2. enxymes in cells can repair damaged protein and DNA molecules. 3. cells in some parts of the body can replace damaged cells( ie gastrointestinal tract). Can lead to malignant or non malignant acceleration of cell production from certain chemicals.
5. Scientists utilize different methods to gather information on the effects of chemicals: for example case reports and epidemiological studies. Most popular method is exposing a live animal population in a laboratory to doses of certain substances. Animal welfare groups are against this and demand humane treatement for the animals.
6. Estimating the toxicology of a single substance is difficult. Attempting to isolate a substance to see if it is a culprit of a harmful effect is far out of reach; combination of experiments of 500 most widely used industrial chemicals would take 20.7 million experiments.
7. Methods of estimating toxicology have limitations. Scientists set exposure levels 1/100 or even 1/1000 of the estimated levels to compensate for the lack of accuracy.
8. The results of experiments on HAAs reveals that we do not truly know if those hormonally active chemicals affect humans and animals harmfully. The indication of any evidence that leads to harm is instensly debated among scientists.
9. U.S. National Academy of Sciences estimates 10% of at least 80,000 chemicals in use have been thoroughly screened for toxicity, 2% for carinogens, teratogens, or mutagens. Federal and state governments do not regulate 99.5% of commercially used chemicals in the U.S.
10. According to WHO, 30% all deaths annually caused by transmissible cardiovascular disease, 26% transmissible infectious disease, 12% nontransmissible cancers. Since 1900 infectious disease has dramitically dropped. Bacteria have developed immunities from antibiotics and infectious organisms have grown immune( ie mosquitoes being immune to pesticides).
Alex Gugliuzza
DeletePeriod 6
Toxicology
1. Diseases not caused by living organisms do not spread from one person to another (non transmissible disease) while those cause by living organisms such as bacteria and viruses can spread from person to person (transmissible disease.
2. WHO's 7 deadliest infectious diseases kill 13.6 million yearly. These are 1.Pneumonia & flu 2.Hiv/Aids 3. Malaria 4.Diarrheal diseases 5.tuberculosis 6.Hepatitis B 7. Measles
3. A widely used method for estimating the toxicity of a chemical is to determine its LD50 or median lethal dose. This is the amount of chemical in one dose that kills exactly 50% of the animal in a test population within 14 days.
4. Epidemiology is the study of the patterns of disease or other harmful effects from toxic exposures within defined groups of people to figure out why some people get sick and others do not
5. Chemical hazards include mutagens (agents that cause random mutations to DNA molecules), teratogens (cause birth defects to the human embryo, and carcinogens (promote the growth of malignant tumors in which cells multiply uncontrollably)
6. Risk analysis involves risk assessment (identifying hazards & evaluating their associated risk), ranking risks, risk management (determining options & making decisions about reducing or eliminating risk), and risk communication (informing decision makers and public about risk)
7. Factors affecting the spread of transmissible diseases include increased international air travel, migration to urban/rural areas, hunger & malnutrition, increased rice cultivation (mosquito breeding), global warming, high winds or hurricanes, and flooding
8. Solutions to infectious diseases include reducing poverty, decrease malnutrition, improving drinking water quality, careful handwriting, immunization of children, increased research on tropical diseases and vaccines, and EDUCATION
9. A hazardous chemical is defined as one that can harm human or other animals because it is flammable, explosive, and irritant, interferes with oxygen uptake, and induce allergic reactions.
10. Factors determining the harm caused by exposure to a chemical include the amount of exposure (dosage), the frequency of exposure, the person who is exposed(children are more susceptible), the effectiveness of the body's detoxification process, and ones genetic makeup
Samay Ersoff
DeleteMs. Leonard
APES
16 April 2012
Toxicology
1. Toxicology: science that studies harmful effects of overexposure to drugs, environmental contaminants, and naturally occurring substances found in food, water, air, and soil.
2. The first principle of toxicology is “The does makes the poison.” The dose is the specific amount of the chemical that enters the body. The amount of damage is called the response.
3. Acute Toxicity: high toxicant does over a short period of time, measured in Lethal Dose 50 or LD50. Lethal Dose 50 is the amount of a substance is lethal to 50% of the animals being tested.
Chronic Toxicity: small doses over a long period of time
4. Exposure and dosage are different concepts. Exposure is how much of the chemical is physically in the environment. Dosage is when that chemical reaches sensitive vital organs in an active form that causes harm.
5. Three primary ways that hazards can enter the body: Ingestion which is the when the chemical enters the body by being eaten. Inhalation is when the chemical is breathed into the lungs, causing irritation. Skin absorption is when a chemical enters the body through the skin.
6. A dosage response curve is used to show the effects of various dosages of a toxic agent on a group of test organisms. For example, these graphs allow people to compare the nonlinear dose-response to the linear dose response.
7. The most toxic things for humans are nerve gases, botulism toxin, mushroom toxin, and dioxin (TCDD). These are all examples of supertoxics that have an LD50 of less than .01 and a lethal dosage of one drop. The least toxic thing for humans consists of things like water, glycerin and table sugar because the LD50 is 15,000 or greater and the average lethal dose in more than a quart.
8. The harm caused by exposure to a chemical depends on the amount of exposure or dose, frequency of exposure, who is exposed and how well the body’s detoxification systems work.
9. The top five toxic substances in 2004 according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency were arsenic, lead, mercury, vinyl chloride and polychlorinated biphyenyls (PCBs).
10. People can estimate toxicity by using case reports about the harmful effects from the toxins on human health by comparing humans that are exposed to toxins rather than humans who aren’t exposed to toxins.
Jonathan Wang
ReplyDeletePeriod 6
Agriculture and Soil Conservation~
Agriculture-
• Approximately 22 million American workers produce, process, sell, and trade the nation’s food. However, only about 4.6 million of them live on farms.
• Agricultural land provides habitat for about 85% of the nation’s wildfire. Some animals that have increased and benefited in population include deer, moose, and waterfowl.
• About every hours, 24 hours a day, 365 days in a year, the U.S. agricultural exports generate more than 100 billion dollars annually in business activity throughout U.S. economy provide about 1 million jobs
• Nearly 2 million people farm or ranch in the U.S. and about 90 percent of U.S. farms are operated by individuals or family businesses. Nearly 30% of farmers today have attended collage with over ½ obtaining their degree and a growing number with 4-year college degrees are approaching post-graduate studies.
• Most farmers and ranchers are trained and certified in the use of agriculture chemicals and usually evaluate the quality, acidity, and dangers and benefits of the soil before doing anything else with it. (I.e. applying fertilizers)
• Due to modern faming, American farmers and ranchers are producing more food on fewer aces. This leaves more open space for wildlife and provide space for the wildlife to thrive.
• Precision farming reduces waste and boosts crop yields by using satellite maps, and computers analysis and data. About 83% of America’s farms have cellular phones, and about 1/3 of them have access to internet.
• Federal and state governments are responsible for the safeguarding for the food supply, but the farmers and responsible for growing the food safely. Some consequences of having inadequate food can result in food-borne illnesses.
• Some resources such as ethanol and bio-diesel fuels that are made from corn and other grains are beneficial to the environment and promote energy security
• Biotechnology research is being closely monitored by federal and state agencies which include the EPA, FDA, USDA. Biotechnology can be very beneficial which produces more quantity and better quality crops. Only 1 specific gene in 10,000 is needed to achieve a desired result.
Soil Production~
Delete• Soil is formed from the weathering of rocks and minerals. The surface rocks break down into smaller pieces through a process of weathering and is then mixed with moss and organic matter. Over time this creates a thin layer of soil. Plants help the development of soil by attracting animals, and when the animals die, their bodies’ decay which makes the soil thick and rich.
• Clay, Slit, and Sand are the 3 types of soil. It is made up of 49% oxygen, 33% silicone, 7% aluminum, 4% iron, and 2% carbon. Air and Water makes up 50% of the soil. Minerals and organic matter make up the rest.
• Soil stores 0.01% of the total water on Earth within its pores which can seep through, cause erosion, and runoff into rivers, streams, oceans, etc.
• Soil is the outermost layer of our planet. It is formed from rocks and the decay of plants and animals.
• Soil differences in other areas rather than one are completely various to another. It is an integral part of our ecosystem. The composition of the soil in an area has a direct effect on the plant and animal life which in where you may live.
• Scientists have found 10,000 types of soil in Europe and 70,000 types of soil in the United States alone.
• A fully functional soil holds 3750 tons of water per hectare, thus reducing the risk of floods. It holds pollutants to a certain extent. Soil stores around 10% of the emissions of carbon dioxide on Earth.
• Soil takes more than 500 years to form two centimeters of topsoil on Earth’s surface. Soil is considered a non-renewable natural source.
• The topmost layer of soil is called topsoil. It contains high amounts of humus and microorganisms. This is the layer where plants obtain their nutrients. The bottom most layers consist of withered rock, where humus is not present.
• Soil formation is a lengthy process where it can be formed from the physical or chemical weathering of rocks. Microorganisms in the soil breakdown the organic matter. Decaying of plants and animals help in the process. Earthworms benefit in farming in this process due to its ability to recycle the nutrients thus making the soil richer
Also this following link list a good amount of information of myths and true facts on agriculture:
http://www.agweb.com/crop_production_facts.aspx
Max Pallot
ReplyDeleteP.6
-Environmental Laws and International Agreements
1. The World Summit of 1992 in Rio de Janeiro was a conference that went on for two weeks. It involved many different countries that discussed different environmental issues. Some of the issues included the replacement of fossil fuels, the attempt of the cleaner drinking water, and the increase of public transportation to reduce fuel emissions.
2. The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 was created by the US government in order to try and reduce oil spills. It also stated that companies that were drilling for oil had to have a plan at the start in case of a future oil spill.
3. The EPA stands for the Environmental Protection Agency that was established in the early 1970's,. Its purpose is to be the ones in charge of the protection of the environment and the health of the citizens of the US.
4. Richard Nixon was one of the first US presidents to really take charge in the importance of a good environment. He created the EPA, and also a lot of other groups and laws that help protect he publics health and the improvement of the environment.
5. The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was created in 1988. It consists of different nations that have formed a group in order to reduce human-induced things that affect the climate and environment, like cars and factories.
6. The Clean Water Act of 1972 was established by the US in order to produce cleaner water by having laws that eliminated the dumping of toxic wastes into waters. It also eliminated other pollutants from being dumped into waters.
7. The Safe Drinking Water Act was created by the EPA in December of 1974, that required states to have limits on what is considered safe drink water for the public. It also was put into effect for different water companies that had to follow the standards as well.
8. The Clean Air Act of 1970 was established in order to protect the general public for the exposure from different air pollutions that were hazardous to human health. The Act has been refined a couple of times over the years since that time.
9. The Rivers and Harbors act of 1899, was one of the first acts that was passed in relation to the quality of the environment in the US. It prohibited the dumping of wastes in navigable waters, unless you had a permit to allow you to do it.
10. The use of tall chimneys in factories was first introduced from the Clean Air Act of 1968. They were used to allow the dispersal of the different coals and fuels that were coming from the different factories.
Oriana Fermin-Period 6
Delete1. The General Mining Law of 1872: With the intent of promoting expansion towards the unpopulated west, the law gave individuals or corporations the right to mine hard rock minerals (gold, silver, copper, zinc , nickel, and uranium) or assume ownership of land parcels (mostly U.S. public lands). Another intent for this law was to explore hard rock minerals which would stimulate the economy. In 1992 this law was modified , it requires mining companies to post bonds covering estimated cleanup cost in case they go bankrupt. In addition , a gross royalty (of 8-12%) on the wholesale value of all minerals removed has been imposed. These modifications have sparked a battle between mining companies and environmentalist. Mining companies claim they must invest large sums to develop an ore site before making an actual profit, hence the cleanup cost interferes with the development cost. Also, they claim their business stimulates local and national economies, they provide jobs, reduce trade deficits, and they supply vital resources for industry.
2. Kyoto Protocal 1997: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change created an international environmental treaty acknowledging global warming, and with the goal of preventing further advancement. The Protocol allows for several "flexible mechanisms", such as emissions trading, the clean development mechanism (CDM) and joint implementation to allow Annex I countries to meet their GHG emission limitations by purchasing GHG emission reductions credits from elsewhere, through financial exchanges. Also, projects that reduce emissions in non-Annex I countries, from other Annex I countries, or from annex I countries with excess allowances, such as the United States.
3. Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act 1986: This law was enacted to help local communities protect public health, safety and the environment from chemical hazards. Implemented emergency planning with the inclusion of fire fighters, health officials, government and media representatives, community groups, etc.
4. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 1996 The primary focus of FIFRA was to provide federal control of pesticide distribution, sale, and use. EPA was given authority under FIFRA not only to study the consequences of pesticide usage but also to require users (farmers, utility companies, and others) to register when purchasing pesticides. Through later amendments to the law, users also must take exams for certification as applicators of pesticides. All pesticides used in the U.S. must be registered (licensed) by EPA. Registration assures that pesticides will be properly labeled and that if in accordance with specifications, will not cause unreasonable harm to the environment.
5. The Montreal Protocol of 1987: An international treaty designated to protect the ozone from ozone depletion. It works by phasing out the production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion ( Including CFC’s) . The treaty was entered into force on January 1, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions. It is believed that if the international agreement is practiced , the ozone layer is expected to recover by 2050. Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international co-operation, with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol.”
(Oriana continued)
Delete6. CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as the Washington Convention) 1975: is a multilateral treaty, drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). CITES entered into force on July 1, 1975. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild, and it establishes varying degrees of protection to more than 33,000 species of animals and plants. Only one species protected by CITES, the Spix's Macaw, has become extinct in the wild.
7. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund ) (CERCLA): 1980 provides a Federal “Superfund” to clean up uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous-waste sites as well as accidents, spills, and other emergency releases of pollutants and contaminants into the environment. Through the Act, EPA was given power to seek out those parties responsible for any release and assure their cooperation in the cleanup. EPA cleans up orphan sites when potentially responsible parties cannot be identified or located, or when they fail to act. Through various enforcement tools, EPA obtains private party cleanup through orders, consent decrees, and other small party settlements. EPA also recovers costs from financially viable individuals and companies once a response action has been completed. EPA is authorized to implement the Act in all 50 states and U.S. territories.
8. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act : 1976 gave EPA the authority to control hazardous waste from the "cradle-to-grave." This includes the generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste. RCRA also set forth a framework for the management of non-hazardous wastes. The 1986 amendments enabled EPA to address environmental problems that could result from underground tanks storing petroleum and other hazardous substances. RCRA focuses only on active and future facilities and does not address abandoned or historical sites (see CERCLA).
9. Endangered Species Act: 1973 provides a program for the conservation of threatened and endangered plants and animals and the habitats in which they are found. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service of the Department of the Interior maintains the list of 632 endangered species (326 are plants) and 190 threatened species (78 are plants). Species include birds, insects, fish, reptiles, mammals, crustaceans, flowers, grasses, and trees.. The law prohibits any action, administrative or real, that results in a "taking" of a listed species, or adversely affects habitat. Likewise, import, export, interstate, and foreign commerce of listed species are all prohibited.
10. Energy Policy Act :1992 Extends tax benefits to solar and wind energy industries. Provides a subsidy ($.015 per. Kwh) to utilities for electricity provided by using renewable resources. -Requires 75% of federally purchased cars and light trucks run on fuels such as natural gas, propane, ethanol, or, methanol. -Prohibits oil and gas drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, among others.
Perry Knight
ReplyDeletePeriod 6
Ozone Depletion
Ozone depleting substances (ODS) are manufactured chemicals that contain either chlorine or bromine in their molecular structure.
The most widely used ODS are Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)s which make up 80% of all OBS in the stratosphere.
They are a colorless, odorless gas that is unreactive and non-soluble in water. Through air currents/convection, the ozone made by humans has reached the upper atmosphere.
CFCs are found in coolants for A/Cs in cars and buildings that were built prior to 1995
The other main ODS are halons, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride and HCFCs.
They are used in some fire extinguishers, used for vapor degreasing and some aerosols; HCFCs are used as a less damaging form of CFC.
When stratospheric ozone is depleted by these substances, because the ozone layer filters out harmful UV rays from the sun, more UV rays reach the earth.
Just one molecule of CFC can destroy up to 100,000 molecules of ozone.
Ozone is formed when oxygen, made of two oxygen atoms, reacts with UV light and adds a third oxygen to its molecule giving it, its “filtration” properties.
The natural process of making ozone molecules, however, is not fast enough to keep up with its relatively faster rate of depletion.
The largest area of ozone depletion is in the stratosphere above Antarctica and it has dropped to 33% of its pre-1975 levels.
Phytoplankton in the ocean can be affected by the UVB rays and it affects their orientation and motility, lowering their survival rates.
Phytoplankton are the base to many aquatic trophic pyramids and reductions in their populations may negatively impact other forms of life.
Because the ozone layer naturally filters out UVB rays, an increase in the amount of these rays results in larger rates of skin cancer reports which led to the Montreal Protocol.
The Montreal Protocol was a meeting of 36 countries in Canada which mandated the plan to cut CFC levels in the stratosphere by 35% by 2000.
EPA regulations that were put under law in the Clean Air Act that eliminated the production and import of ODS to further empower the Montreal Protocol, within the United States.
At a 2007 meeting between the Parties to the Montreal Protocol, the coalition agreed to now a phase out HCFCs that will be equivalent to 9,000 million tons of carbon dioxide.
The EPA has been working with supermarkets and other companies to further expand technology and find replacements for CFCs and HCFCs, as well as new ways to get rid of existing CFCs.
CFCs also are corrosive to certain materials such as rubber and some plastics, which may affect structures.
Countries in the Northern Hemisphere, including the United States and Europe, are responsible for the release of 90% of CFCs now in the stratosphere.
Scientists estimate that it will take another 50 years for chlorine levels to return to their natural levels.
Michael Wall
ReplyDeleteP:4
Alternative Fuel Resources
1) Oil and Coal are expected to run out in about 100-200 years, thus we need to look into alternative fuel source, like solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, and biomass, which are all renewable resources.
2) Solar energy is economically friendly because it is a renewable resource (coming from the sun) and reduces pollution. Solar panels can be installed, however they have a high initial cost and are only 40% efficient.
3) Solar energy by 2050 is expected to provide for approximately 25% of the worlds electricity supply, while helping out the environment because it doesn’t emit greenhouse gases.
4) Wind energy is also an alternative energy. It can be created by wind turbines, with which have a high productivity. It is a renewable resource and is also free and nonpolluting.
5) When the turbine blades capture wind energy, they spin a shaft that leads from the rotator to the generator. The generator then turns the rotational energy into electricity.
6) About 20 % of the worlds energy is hydro power, with China producing the most. The U.S uses 10% hydro power as well. It also produces no direct waste, with a considerably less output level of CO2, than fossil fuels.
7) Hydro power is extremely efficient most hydro electric power comes from the potential power of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator creating electricity. The largest hydroelectricity plant is the Three Gorges dam in China.
8) Geothermal energy costs 80 % less than fossil fuels and is economically beneficial because it releases a much lower greenhouse gas emission per energy unit than fossil fuels do.
9) Geothermal energy comes from the heat from hot springs and magma conduits, but has a low efficiency rating (10-23%) because geothermal fluids don’t reach high temperatures of steam from boilers in geothermal electric plants.
10) Examples of biomass is wood, yard clippings, and even municipal solid waste. These generate electricity with steam turbines and gasifies or produce heat, by direct combustion. An example is ethanol fuel.
Andrew Grossman
ReplyDelete4-15-12
period: 4
Urbanization
1. Cities either grow out or outward, or upward. Those in compact cities growing upwards tend to use mass transit systems, walk or ride bikes. i.e. New York City. Those in sprawling outward growing cities tend to use individual automobile transportation.
2. Cars rule in the U.S.A. We use 32% of the worlds car while consuming 43% of the worlds gas.
3. Cars make people mobile and fuel the economy, but they kill people, pollute, and waste time in traffic. To reduce use, governments would have to force subsidies for cars, and have higher gasoline taxes. Mass transit systems aren't possible everywhere because people are too widespread around the globe.
4. The use of other alternative auto transportation such as bikes, scooters, buses, subways, railways, and so on would highly benefit the U.S. economy.
5. Smart growth discourages urban sprawl, protects ecologically sensitive land and water, and develops environmentally sustainable urban areas. This channels growth to areas where it does less harm.
6. Eco-cities are people-oriented, preserve biodiversity, and emit low pollution.
7. Urbanization is the movement of people from rural to urban areas. Things are used to restrict it like zoning, which classifies areas for different types of development and land use. There is also, Urban Growth Boundaries or UGB's.
8. UGB's limit sprawl, protects things outside the city from being destroyed by the growing city, and revitalizes downtowns, however they also increase housing prices, increase density of housing and increase pressure on expanding the boundaries.
9. Although mass transit is used in many urban areas, and helps reduce pollution cars cause in traffic jams, U.S. mass transit lags behind other nations, other nations have better bus systems, high-speed bullet trains, and other better means of mass transportation.
10. Urbanization calls for city planning which helps create livable urban areas by designing cities to maximize their efficiency, functionality, and beauty.
Aaron Levitats
DeletePeriod 4
Urbanization
1) One half of the worlds people live in cities/densely populated urban areas, with urban populations in developing countries increasing at a very rapid rate.
2) Pull factors into urban areas include jobs, food, housing, a better life, entertainment, and freedom from religious, racial, and political conflicts of village life.
3) Push factors away from rural areas and into urban areas include poverty, lack of land, declining work, famine, and war.
4) Urban sprawl is the outward sprawl of urban areas (suburbs), and is a byproduct of affordable land and car—which it is dependant upon—poor urban planning, and cheap gas.
5) Problems caused by urban sprawl include decreased energy efficiency; increased urban flooding; destruction of cropland, forest, and open space; and longer travel time.
6) Advantages of urbanization are that cities are centers of economic development, jobs, commerce, and transportation as well as the fact that urban populations are generally healthier due to easier access to medical care, family planning information, education, and social services.
7) Other advantages of living in the cities are that recycling is more feasible and environmental protection is better supported, because when people are concentrated in an area they preserve biodiversity and wildlife habitats.
8) Disadvantages of urbanization include the fact that cities don’t sustain themselves, pollutants and noise gets concentrated, infectious disease spreads easily, crime and poverty is prevalent, and the large populations threaten biodiversity because they produce large amounts of waste.
9) Other issues include the fact that the densely packed populations in cities use a lot of resources that deplete the environment around them, flooding may occur because of water runoff, and the heat produced in cities creates urban heat islands.
10) Mexico City is an environmental nightmare and an urban disaster because of rapid population growth, severe pollution, disease, poverty, lack of sewage, unemployment, noise, traffic congestion, and crime.
1) A country’s degree of urbanization = percentage of
Deleteits population living in an urban area
2)Many urban areas are growing because their rural hinterlands are depressed, which forces impoverished rural people to move to the cities in search of work.
3) urbanization causes Traffic increases, leading to more congestion and more road accidents. Half a million people die and 15 million are injured in urban traffic accidents in developing countries each year, according to the World Health Organization. Victims are mostly poor pedestrians and bicyclists
4)Most people now live in urban areas. Three quarters of the population of the United States is urban, and one quarter is rural.
5)Many urban poor who rely on public transportation have limited access to the suburbs where the jobs are. In Detroit, for example, about 40 percent of the central city population does not have a car, yet most of the new jobs are in outlying suburbs.
6)Coastal zones tend to be disproportionately urban: 65 per cent of the population of coastal areas is concentrated
in cities. They have higher densities and are experiencing higher urban growth.
7)The urban heat island is formed when industrial and urban areas are developed and heat becomes more abundant. In rural areas, a large part of the incoming solar energy is used to evaporate water from vegetation and soil. In cities, where less vegetation and exposed soil exists, the majority of the sun’s energy is absorbed by urban structures and asphalt.
8)The rapid growth of cities strains their capacity to provide services such as energy, education, health care, transportation, sanitation and physical security.
9)Cities with over 5 million inhabitants are known as megacities. There were 41 in the year 2000. This number is expected to grow as the population increases in the next few decades. It is predicted that by the year 2015, 50 megacities will exist, and 23 of these are expected to have over 10 million people
10)Developed nations have a higher percentage of urban residents than less developed countries. However, urbanization is occurring rapidly in many less developed countries, and it is expected that most urban growth will occur in less developed countries during the next decades.
Dylan Silverman
ReplyDeleteP4
Energy Production With Fossil Fuels
1. Formed in the Carbiniferous Period (360-286 mill. Years ago) of the Paleozioc Era, and took an extremely extensive amount of time to do so, and are, because of this, nonrenewable.
Oil:
2. Comprised of a mixture of hydrocarbons that can be separated by taking advantage of their various boiling points in the distillation process.
3. Extracted by drilling a hole into the earth, and using it as an escape route for oil forced out by steam and hot water inserted to the well next to the first borehole.
4. The hydrocarbons that make up oil release a large amount of energy when they are combusted(or react with oxygen). This makes oil ideal as a fuel source and is why approximately 8.2 million barrels of oil were used per day in the world in 2009 alone(42 gallons of oil per barrel).
Natural Gas:
5. Natural gas is a hydrocarbon gas mixture comprised primarily of methane. It is combusted in boilers and turbines to generate electricity. The largest reserves are found in Russia.
6. As of 2007, the annual consumption rate of natural gas was 3,198,000,000,000 cubic meters. The number one consumer being the US at 652,900,000,000 cubic meters per year.
7. There are an estimated 187 trillion cubic meters of natural gas left in reserves, enough to last around 60 years because it is a nonrenewable resources.
Coal:
8. Coal is formed when dead plant matter is converted into peat by exposure to heat and pressure over an extreme period of time. Peat is converted into lignite and then anthracite over time by similar processes. Anthracite is the highest energy form of coal.
9. Coal is extracted through various mining forms: area mining, contour mining, mountain top removal mining, underground mining, and room and pillar mining. It is combusted and used for electricity.
10. Coal is the largest energy source used for the generation of electricity. Use of coal emits large amounts of CO2 (which contributes to global warming) and SOx (which contributes to acidic precipitaion).
Chloe Pappas
ReplyDeletePeriod 4
Environmental Laws and International Agreements
1. The primary law overseeing the safety of chemical products, the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), was passed in 1976 and provides the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) authority to review and regulate chemicals in commerce.
2. To ensure confidence in safety regulations, EPA’s decisions must be based on a strong scientific framework that uses modern technology, proven safety testing methods and high-quality data.
3. Congress passed TSCA in 1976 to create a system to oversee the production and use of chemicals in the United States.
4. In the United States, violations of environmental laws are generally civil offenses, resulting in monetary penalties and, perhaps, civil sanctions such as injunction.
5. The Federal Laws sections contain the full text of important federal environmental statutes. The incorporation of amendments brings the statutes up to date.
6. Clean Water Act - This 1977 amendment to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, sets the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into waters of the United States.
7. Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) (1986) - emphasized the importance of finding permanent remedies for cleaning up hazardous waste sites, increased State involvement in Superfund activities, focused on human health problems associated with hazardous waste, and encouraged citizen participation in hazardous waste cleanup decisions.
8. Clean Air Act (CAA) (1970) - The CAA regulates air emissions from area, stationary, and mobile sources. It authorizes the EPA to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) to protect public health and the environment.
9. Toxic Substances Control Act (1976) - TSCA gives the EPA the ability to track the 75,000 industrial chemicals currently produced or imported into the United States
10. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976) - RCRA governs hazardous substances and toxic waste. It requires the EPA to promulgate standards that apply to generators and transporters of hazardous waste and owners and operators of facilities which treat, store and dispose of such waste.
Talia Edri
DeletePeriod 4
Environmental Laws and International Agreements
1. CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as the Washington Convention) is a multilateral treaty drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The convention was opened for signature in 1973, and CITES entered into force on July 1, 1975. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild, and it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 33,000 species of animals and plants..
2. Marpol 73/78 is the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, 1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978. ("Marpol" is short for marine pollution and 73/78 short for the years 1973 and 1978.) Marpol 73/78 is one of the most important international marine environmental conventions. It was designed to minimize pollution of the seas, including dumping, oil and exhaust pollution. Its stated object was to preserve the marine environment through the complete elimination of pollution by oil and other harmful substances and the minimization of accidental discharge of such substances.
3. While the bodies that proposed, argued, agreed upon and ultimately adopted existing international agreements vary according to each agreement, certain conferences, including 1972's United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 1983's World Commission on Environment and Development, 1992's United Nations Conference on Environment and Development and 2002's World Summit on Sustainable Development have been particularly important.
4. There are about 1000 environmental law treaties in existence today; no other area of law has generated such a large body of conventions on a specific topic.[
5. Protocols are subsidiary agreements built from a primary treaty. They exist in many areas of international law but are especially useful in the environmental field, where they may be used to regularly incorporate recent scientific knowledge. They also permit countries to reach agreement on a framework that would be contentious if every detail were to be agreed upon in advance. The most widely known protocol in international environmental law is the Kyoto Protocol, which followed from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
6. One of the biggest challenges in international decisions is to determine an adequate compensation for environmental damages.
7. The decisions of the Supreme Court in cases such as Calvert Cliffs Coordinating Committee v. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (broadly reading the procedural requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act), Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill (broadly reading the Endangered Species Act), and, much more recently, Massachusetts v. EPA (requiring EPA to reconsider regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act) have had policy impacts far beyond the facts of the particular case.
8. The United States environmental law administration includes the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the most well-known federal agency, with jurisdiction over many of the country's national air, water and waste and hazardous substance programs. Other federal agencies, such as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National Park Service pursue primarily conservation missions, while still others, such as the United States Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management, tend to focus more on beneficial use of natural resources.
9. The U.S. estimates of the environmental regulation's total costs reach 2% of GDP.
10. The IUCN Academy of Environmental Law[18] is a network of some 60 law schools worldwide that specialize in the research and teaching of environmental law.
David Schneider
ReplyDeletePeriod 4
Human Population Growth
1. China, which has the world largest population, has set strongly enforced government regulations to stabilize population growth in the country. Benefits of following government policies pertaining to this include larger pensions, better housing, and free school tuition.
2. Out of all of the developed countries (or MDC's) the United States has the highest population growth. 45% of it is from immigration.
3. The biggest factor to determine a country's future population growth is the number and percent of people they have under the age of 15.
4. Total fertility rate (average number of children a women will have in her life) decreased from more than 4 in the late 1890s to almost 2 in the 1930s causing a population growth decrease
5. According to the Demographic Transition Model (which explains the population growth trends as a country develops) as a country becomes industrialized the death rate drops first and then birth rates decline in 4 stages.
6. The stages of the Demographic Transition Model are 1. Pre industrial Stage (characterized by high birth and death rates) 2. Transitional Stage (lower death rates and high birth rates) 3. Industrial Stage (lowering birth rate and low death rate) 4. Postindustrial Stage (low birth and death rates causing close to zero population growth most of the time).
7. The annual rate of natural population change percent equals birth rates minus death rates divided by every 1,000 people times 100.
8. Family planning methods are used to decrease birth rates that factor into population growth. This includes providing educational and clinical services so that couples can choose the right amount of children for themselves and be well informed of all possibilities.
9. Many experts predict, depending on multiple variable factors in the future (disease, food supply, healthcare), the human carrying capacity on Earth is between 10-20 billion people.
10. According to the UN, the 5 countries with the highest population growth rate are Liberia, Burundi, Afghanistan, Western Sahara, and East Timor
Alternative Energy Resources
ReplyDelete1. Alternative energy is an umbrella term that refers to any source of usable energy intended to replace fuel sources without the undesired consequences of the replaced fuels.
2. Alternative energy is that which is produced without the undesirable consequences of the burning of fossil fuels, such as high carbon dioxide emissions, which is considered to be the major contributing factor of global warming.
3. Common types of alternative energy resources include solar, wind, geothermal, biofuel and ethanol, and hydrogen.
4. Solar energy is generating of electricity from the sun. It is split up into two types, thermal and electric energy. These two subgroups mean that they heat up homes (and water) and generate electricity respectively.
5. Wind energy is generating electricity from the wind.
6. Geothermal energy is using hot water or steam from the Earth’s interior for heating buildings or electricity generation.
7. Biofuel and ethanol are plant-derived substitutes of gasoline for powering vehicles.
8. Hydrogen is used as clean fuel for airplanes, spaceships, and vehicles.
9. Alternative energy can be widely produced with basic equipment and naturally basic processes. For example, wood, the most renewable and available alternative energy source, burns the same amount of carbon it would emit if it degraded naturally.
10. A major drawback of Hydrogen energy is that it is not found naturally in nature and is expensive to produce.
11. The extraction methods for Biomass include combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, and fermentation.
12. Photovoltaic cells are essential in conquering solar energy.
13. The main use of solar energy is for agriculture.
14. For both solar and wind energy, the installation prices are extremely expensive, however, the energy itself is essentially cost-free because it is naturally occurring on earth and renewable.
15. Geothermal energy is mainly found underground in hot springs.
16. Modern hydro turbines can convert as much as 90% of the available energy into electricity. The best fossil fuel plants are only about 50% efficient.
17. Hydropower has become the leading source of renewable energy. It provides more than 97% of all electricity generated by renewable sources worldwide.
18. Germany, the US, Spain, Denmark, India and Australia are among the world's leading nations in the acquisition of wind energy. Wind power is now the world's fastest growing energy source and has also become one of the most rapidly expanding industries.
19. Although geothermal energy production does not directly involve combustion, some applications of geothermal energy produce carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide emissions, requiring the cooling of as much as 100,000 gallons of water per megawatt per day, and dispose of toxic waste and dissolved solids.
20. Landfills produce methane gas which is a powerful greenhouse gas if vented un-burnt to the atmosphere. While burning landfill methane gas is not pollution-free, it is much better to burn it than vent it.
Alternative energy resources part 2
Delete1. Alternative energy, otherwise known was Renewable energy, comes from naturally replenishing resources, hence the term renewable.
2. . About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from alternative energy sources, with 10% of that coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from hydroelectricity.
3.Climate concerns along with increasing oil prices, have caused increased government support in alternative energy.
4. As time progresses renewable energy gets cheaper as fossil fuels get more expensive.
5. Wind energy is becoming a popular form of alternative energy. It has been growing at a rate of 30% annually gathering about 238,000 megawatts last year.
6. Areas where winds are stronger and more constant, such as offshore, is the preferred locations for wind farms.
7. According to various projections by the International Energy Agency, solar power generators may produce most of the world’s electricity within 50 years.
8. A list of solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture, daylighting, solar hot water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes.
9. Hydro elective energy, while effective, has various environmental ramifications as well as expensive to harness.
10. The world largest hydroelectric dam is the Three Gorges Damn in Hubei China.
11. Biomass energy, similar to solar energy as it also comes from the sun, is the process that plants use for photosynthesis.
12. The most effective way to use this biomass is by burning the plant, thus releasing the energy stored within it.
13. Biofuels is a wide range of fuel that is created by biomass. The term includes liquid fuels and various biogases.
14. Bioethanol is a type of biofuel that is made alcohol through the fermentation of sugar cane.
15. Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils and animal fats. These can be used as fuel for vehicles.
16. Geothermal energy has been used since Paleolithic times for which it has been used for space and bath heating.
17. Geothermal energy is thermal energy that is generated and stored in the earth.
18. Geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of minerals.
19. This can be harnessed by a geothermal gradient , which is the difference of temperature between the earth's core and the earth's surface.
20. Geothermal energy is cost effective, reliable, and sustainable, but unfortunately is limited to tectonic plate boundaries.
Marisa de la Cruz Munoz
ReplyDeletePeriod 4
Ecosystems-Succession, Biodiversity, Island Biogeography
Succession:
1. Ecological succession is the gradual change in species composition of a given area.
2.Ecologists recognize two types of ecological succession depending on the conditions present at the beginning of the process, primary and secondary succession.
3.Primary succession involves the gradual establishment of biotic communities on nearly lifeless ground.
4.Secondary succession is more common and is when biotic communities are established in an area where some type of biotic community is already present.
Biodiversity:
5.The Earth's biodiversity is the biological wealth or capital that helps keep us alive and supports our economies.
6.Biological diversity or biodiversity is considered a renewable resource.
7. The Earths biodiversity supplies us with food,wood,fibers,energy,raw materials, industrial chemicals and medicine.
8.Biodiversity helps preserve the quality of the air and water, maintain fertility of soils, dispose of wastes and control populations of pests that attack crops and forests.
Island Biogeography:
9. In the 1960s Robert Macarthur and Edward O. Wilson studied why large islandstend to have more species of a certan category (insects,birds,ferns) than smaller islands.
10.The species equilibrium model or theory of island biogeography states that a balance between the rate at which new species immigrate to the island and the rate at which existing specis become extinct on the island.
11.At some point, these two rates of immigration and extinction should reach a point of equilibrium that determines the islands' average number of species.
sam de la cruz
ReplyDeleteperiod 4
soils and agricultural producton
1. Soil erosion is a gradual process that occurs when the impact of water or wind detaches and removes soil particles, causing the soil to deteriorate.
2. Soil deterioration and low water quality due to erosion and surface runoff have become severe problems worldwide.
3. The problem may become so severe that the land can no longer be cultivated and must be abandoned.
4. Many agricultural civilizations have declined due to land and natural resource mismanagement, and the history of such civilizations is a good reminder to protect our natural resources.
5. Erosion is a serious problem for productive agricultural land and for water quality concerns.
6. Controlling the sediment must be an integral part of any soil management system to improve water and soil quality.
7. Eroded topsoil can be transported by wind or water into streams and other waterways.
8. The impact of soil erosion on water quality becomes significant, particularly as soil surface runoff.
9. Therefore, the most effective way to minimize sediment production is the stabilization of the sediment source by controlling erosion.
10. Several conservation practices can be used to control erosion but first you need to understand the factors affecting soil erosion.
11. Soil erosion by water occurs when bare-sloped soil surface is exposed to rainfall, and the rainfall intensity exceeds the rate of soil intake, or infiltration rate, leading to soil-surface runoff.
12. The hydrologic processes of rainfall and runoff play an essential role in water erosion.
13. The amount and rate of surface runoff can affect erosion and sediment transport.
14. Agronomic, cultural, or structural practices are available for controlling soil erosion.
15. The most effective way to control erosion is to maintain a permanent surface cover on the soil surface, such as pasture or meadow.
16. Plant residue management is another way of controlling soil erosion by intercepting raindrops, thereby reducing surface runoff and protecting soil surface particle detachment by raindrop impact.
17. Crop residue can provide an excellent soil cover after harvest and enhance snow harvesting during the off season, improve soil water intake by preventing soil surface sealing due to raindrop impact, and consequently, reduce surface runoff.
18. Equally important in minimizing soil erosion is the adoption of a cropping system along with conservation tillage practices such as no-till, strip-till, and ridge-till.
19. The degree of effectiveness of different tillage practices depends on the degree of soil manipulation, which effects the residue distribution on the soil surface.
20. Many studies indicate that soil erosion results in large decreases in soil productivity.
APES- Solid Waste Management
ReplyDelete1. In the United States, 98.5% of solid waste comes from indirect sources:
A. Mining and oil/gas production-75%
B. Agriculture- 13%
C. Industry- 9.5%
D. Sewage sludge-1%
2. Solid waste from direct sources is called garbage or:
A. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)- 1.5%
Comes from homes and workplaces. Amount of waste in constantly increasing.
In total, the U.S. produces 11 billion metric tons of solid waste a year.
A. Most developed countries produce 50% as much MSW as the U.S.
B. Most developing countries produce 10-25% as much MSW as the U.S.
3. Components of U.S. Garbage
A. Paper- 38%
B. Yard Waste- 12%
C. Food Waste-11%
D. Plastics- 10%
E. Other- 29%
4. Another problem is E-waste: electronic waste
A. Batteries= Lead and Mercury. Plastics contain Polyvinylchloride (PVCs)
B. E- waste is the fastest growing waste in the U.S. Only 2% recycled
C. Shipped to developing Asian countries (cheap labor). Hazard for workers.
5. Municipal Waste Management- Incineration
A. High-waste approach
B. Usually cheap due to cost of land
Waste-to-energy Incinerators- Expensive
A. Burns waste to boil water into steam to run turbines= Electricity
B. Japan and Switz. burn 50% of MSW
C. U.S. burns 16% of MSW.
Mass-burn Incinerators- Cheap
A. Hazardous material not separated= More air pollution
Refuse-derived-fuel Incinerators- Expensive
A. Separates recyclable and hazardous material= Less pollution
6. Municipal Waste Management- Landfills
A. High-waste approach
B. U.S. largest type of MSW management
C. 54% of MSW in the U.S. buried in landfills
D. Expensive due to cost of land
Open dumps- Cheap
A. Used in developing countries
B. Toxic waste contaminate groundwater
C. Older landfills release greenhouse gases
Sanitary landfills- Expensive
A. Waste spread in thin layers
B. Bottom covered with clay or plastic to prevent water pollution
C. Lechate (water contaminated by waste) sent to sewage treatment plant
D. Vent pipes collect Methane and Carbon Dioxide for energy use
7. Waste Reduction- Reduce
A. Low-waste approach. Make longer lasting products
B. Replace toxic materials with safer ones
C. Use less packages such as plastic bags
8. Waste Reduction- Reuse
A. Resource Exchange Web- Farmers exchange waste with industry, who then convert waste into new reusable resources or energy.
B. Example of above is Kalunborg, Denmark.
C. Biomimcry- Imitating Earth’s natural recycling of nutrients
Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company (3M)
A. Began a Pollution Prevention Pays (3P) program.
B. Made reusable, non-polluting products
C. Saved money from not having to pay for waste disposal
Worldwide Reuse Efforts
A. Denmark banned all beverage containers that can’t be reused
B. Netherlands, Ireland, and China charge money for plastic= more cloth bags
9. Waste Reduction- Recycle (Consumer products)
A. U.S. recycles 30% of MSW
B. Most recycling- Japan recycles 60% of MSW
C. 5 major recyclable products- Paper, glass, aluminum, steel, and some plastics
D. Pay As You Throw (PAUT)- Charges for mixed waste. No charge on recycled items.
Primary Recycling (closed-loop)
A. Waste made into products of the same type
Secondary Recycling (Down cycling)
A. Waste made into new products of different types than original
Recyclable Waste
A. Preconsumer (internal) waste- Generated in manufacturing process
B. Postconsumer (external) waste- Generated by consumer use after manufacturing
C. 25 times more postconsumer waste than preconsumer waste
10. Waste Reduction- Recycle (Compost)
A. Composting- Make consumer products biodegradable for plants as nutrients
B. Only 5% of U.S. paper/food waste composted.
C. Save money on fertilizer and restores eroded soil
Solid Waste Continued:
ReplyDelete11. Waste Reduction- Recycle Solid Waste
Materials-Recovering Facility (MRF): Centralized
A. Separates resources (for selling) from waste
B. Expensive, could emit air pollutants from burning waste to produces electricity
C. Throughput society- High resource use (ouput) encouraged by ability to recycle
Source Separation- Decentralized
A. Reduce pollution, save energy, costs less, promotes 3Rs.
12. Paper and Plastics
Paper- 40% or 2/5 of world tree harvest
A. U.S. recycles 30% of paper
B. Paper production releases harmful chlorine to bleach pulp
C. European Union replaced Chlorine dioxide with Hydrogen Peroxide
Plastics- Produced from oil & and natural gas
A. Only 10% recycled because removal of chemicals in plastic is expensive
B. PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) ruins recyclable plastic (PET)
C. Cheaper to burn than recycle if not accounting environmental cost
13. Economical Perspective
A. Market price of product doesn’t account for environmental cost
B. Industries more receive tax-breaks and subsidies on resource-extraction than 3Rs
C. Product Stewardship- Makes companies recycle/reuse products and rewards companies for making safer products
14. Hazardous Waste
A. Release toxic fumes or can explode
B. Developed countries produce 80-90% of hazardous waste
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)- Doesn’t do good job
A. Only 5% of hazardous waste is regulated in U.S.
B. Doesn’t regulate radioactive, household, mining (22%), oil/chemical (72%), liquid waste containing hydrocarbons (cement kiln), and businesses that generate less than 100 kg of hazardous waste a month
15. 1984: Bhopal, India- Explosion of Union Carbide pesticide plant
A. Storage tank released toxic methyl isocyanate (MIC) due to leakage of pipe water
B. Blindness, lung damage, and neurological problems. Largest industrial tragedy
16. Input vs Output management of hazardous waste
A. Output- Burning or burying. Encourage more waste. Short-term
B. Input- Reduce waste production. Long-term benefit
17. Detoxification of waste- Natural ways (Possible FRQ)
A. Bioremediation- Bacteria and enzymes destroy toxic substances or convert them into harmless ones.
B. Example: 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill- Bacteria absorb oil
C. Phytoremediation- GMOs absorb, filter, and remove contaminants from soil. Cheap
D. Example- Sunflower roots in ponds can absorb Strontium-90 and Cesium-137
E. Example- Cottonwood tree modified to absorb mercury ions
18. Detoxification- Plasma: Expensive
A. Created by passing electric current through a gas at very high temperature
B. Plasma torch decompose liquid/solid hazardous waste into ions and atoms, then converted into molecules and released as gas
C. Disadvantage- Release particulates and carbon dioxide= more air pollution
19. Hazardous Waste Management- Burial
A. Deep-well disposal: Pump waste into rock layers well beneath aquifer. Cheap but risks such as earthquake could release waste
B. Surface-impoundments: Store waste into man-made pits, ponds, lagoons. Cheap but causes air pollution (VOCs) and groundwater contamination if it has no liners
Effects: Brownfield
A. Abandoned commercial/industry sites with hazardous waste
B. Being reclaimed but risky due to toxic metals, oil, and unclean groundwater
20. Toxic Substances
Lead (Pb)- Damages nervous system.
A. Source- Leaded gasoline banned in U.S. in 1976. Paint from older houses (1960s)
Mercury- Causes brain damage.
A. Starts as inorganic Mercury (Hg+2) released through burning coal
B. Converted by bacteria into toxic methylmercury (CH3Hg+)
C. Biomagnifies in aquatic food chain.
D. Eaten by humans via tuna, swordfish, mackerel
Dioxins- Carcinogen and endocrine (hormone) disruptor
A. Sources- CFCs from incineration (70%), coal power plants, volcanoes, sludge
B. Persistent chemicals, stored in human fatty tissues.
C. Enters humans via food
Jenny Geirson: Air Pollution other than O3 and GCC
ReplyDelete1.Air pollution is a major factor in causing humans to get ill. Tuberculosis, bronchitis, heart and chest diseases, stomach disorders, asthma and cancers can all be traced to chemicals in the air. 2.Pesticides and fertilisers release gases and particles into the air which poison people and kill animals.
3.air pollution is worst in Latin America and Asia. In cities like Seoul and Mexico City.
4.high levels of airborne particulates cause inhibiting plant growth and requiring costly filtration equipment in certain high-tech manufacturing industries.
5.The WHO does not set guideline values for particulates because there is no evident threshold below which there are no adverse health effects.
6.Long-term exposure to particulates appears to be associated with a reduction of life expectancy of up to 2 years and higher prevalence of bronchitis and reduced lung function in children.
7.The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere act together as a giant safety blanket. They keep the temperature on the earth's surface from dipping to extreme icy cold that would freeze everything solid, or from soaring to blazing heat that would burn up all life.
8.In the study of air pollution control the layers of the air that are most important are the troposphere and the stratosphere.
9. The clean air act drives the most regulation of air pollution quality. Two groups of air pollutants are regulated under the clean air act: criteria pollutants and toxic air pollutants
10.Coal- and oil-fired power plants produce almost half the toxic air pollution in the U.S.
Octavia: Biogeochemical Cylces
ReplyDelete1. The cycling of chemical elements required by life between the living and nonliving parts of the environment are H2O, P, S, N2, O2 and C.
2. These elements cycle in either a gas cycle or a sedimentary cycle; some cycle as both a gas and sediment.
3. In a gas cycle elements move through the atmosphere. Main reservoirs are the atmosphere and the ocean.
4. In a sedimentary cycle elements move from land to water to sediment. Main reservoirs are the soil and sedimentary rocks.
5. We have adopted a model of the Earth System as a set of interacting “spheres”, the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere. Being open systems, energy and mass are constantly cycled between them.
6. The transport and transformation of substances through the Earth system are known collectively as biogeochemical cycles. These include the hydrologic (water), nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen cycles.
7. The flow of chemical elements and compounds between living organisms and the physical environment.
8.Chemicals absorbed or ingested by organisms are passed through the food chain and returned to the soil, air, and water by such mechanisms as respiration, excretion, and decomposition.
9. As an element moves through this cycle, it often forms compounds with other elements as a result of metabolic processes in living tissues and of natural reactions in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, or lithosphere.
10. Recently, people have been causing these biogeochemical cycles to change (see links below). When we cut down forests, make more factories, and drive more cars that burn fossil fuels, the way that carbon and nitrogen move around the Earth changes. These changes add more greenhouse gases in our atmosphere and this causes more global warming.
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Oceans
ReplyDelete1. Some ecological services the oceans provide are climate moderation, CO2 absorption, nutrient cycling, and waste treatment and dilution.
2. The oceans have four main life zones. Coastal zone which only takes up less than 10% of the ocean's area but contains 90% of all marine species. Euphotic zone which is part of the other 90% of the ocean, but it's the brightly lit top layer of the ocean. Then comes the Bathyal zone which is the dimly lit second layer of the ocean, and finally the Abyssal zone which is the lower dark third layer of the ocean.
3. A shore upwelling is when deep, cool, nutrient-rich waters are drawn up to replace surface water moved away from a steep coast by wind flowing along the coast toward the equator.
4. Currently, about 40% of the world's population and more than half of the US population live along coasts or within 100 kilometers (62 miles) of a coast.
5. Most minerals in seawater cost too much to extract, and mineral resources found on the deep ocean floor are not being removed because of high costs and squabbles over who owns them.
6. Hydrothermal ore deposits form when mineral-rich superheated water shoots out of vents in solidified magma on the ocean floor.
7. The oceans help moderate the Earth's average surface temperature by removing about 29% of the excess carbon dioxide we pump into the atmosphere as part of the global carbon cycle.
8. A connected loop of shallow and deep ocean currents stores carbon dioxide in the deep sea and transmits warm and cool water to various parts of the Earth.
9. It is very likely that global sea levels will rise from 4 to 35 inches during this century.
10. About 63% of the roughly 25,000 known fish species exist in marine systems- 50% in coastal waters, 12% in the deep sea, and 1% in the open ocean. The remaining 37% live in fresh water systems.
11. Globally, we get about 6% of our total protein and almost a fifth of our animal protein from marine fish and shellfish.
12. Although lakes, rivers, and wetlands occupy only 1% of the Earth's surface, they provide ecological and economic services worth trillions of dollars per year.
13. A large zone of oxygen-depleted water (less than 2 ppm of dissolved oxygen) forms for half of the year in the Gulf of Mexico as a result of oxygen-depleting algal blooms.
14. More than one fourth of the world's diverse coral reefs have been severely damaged, mostly by human activities. By 2050 another 70% of the world's coral reefs may be severely damaged or eliminated.
15. More than one third of the world's original mangrove forest swamps have disappeared, mostly because of clearing for coastal development, growing crops, and aquaculture shrimp farms. And during the last century we lost about half of the world's coastal wetlands.
16. About three fourths of the world's commercially valuable marine fish species are overfished or fished to their estimated sustainable yield.
17. Nations have established various types of marine sanctuaries, but most only receive partial protection and fully protected areas make up less than 0.01% of the world's ocean area.
18. According to the UN Environmental Program, coastal water pollution costs the world $16 billion annually- $731,000 a minute- due to ill health and premature death.
19. Parts of the world's oceans are dump sites for a variety of toxic materials and sewage and garbage from ships.
20. Preventing or reducing the flow of pollution from the land and from streams emptying into the ocean is the key to protecting the oceans.
Stephen Rapaport
ReplyDeleteGlobal Warming
1.Average temperatures have gone up 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit around the world since 1880
2.Artic ice is rapidly decreasing
3.Coral reefs are extremely sensitive to even the most minimal changes in water temperature, has been dying off and died off most in 1998
4.Humans have been linked to the cause of global warming
5.The eight warmest years recorded have been since 1998
6.We have caused an overusage of greenhouse gasses which reflect off the sun.The greenhouse gasses are good but to there is to much of one thing.
7.Scientists expect a 3.5° F increase in average global temperatures by 2100, which would result in the warmest temperatures in the past million years
8.Geologists believe sea levels might rise from seven to 23 inches towards the end of the century
9.Average temperatures in the frigid climates of Alaska, Canada, and Russia have risen at twice the global average in the last century
10.When the weather goes up that threatens many species to the point of extinction. This is because of the change
11.In between the first Earth Day in 1970 and 2001, man-made emissions of greenhouse gases rose 70%
12.About 1000 tons of CO2 are dumped into the atmosphere every second. 2011 set the record which means it is still rising
13.Environmentalists are using scare tactics to warn people but no one seems to listen
14.The Great Barrier Reef may be gone in 20 years
15.82% of glaciers have dissapeared
16.Over a hundred million people will be displaced
17.This change in weather can cause horrific natural disasters to occur
18.CFC's are expected to be put out of use by 2030 to try and help slow down global warming
19.The world over the next 25 years will spend 20 trillion dollars on research to try and slow down global warming
20.Global Warming as most people say can't be stopped but it can be slowed down
And Also remember:Reduce,Reuse,Recycle
Island Biogeography:
ReplyDelete1. Every island has an equilibrium for the optimum number of species it can support.
2. Recognzes that that if the immigration rates and the extinction rates are known, then the species number at equilibrium can be calculated.
3. Population ecology and genetics, mixed with distance and area, combine to regulate the balance between immigration and extinction in island populations.
Biodiversity:
4. There are an estimated 5-30 million species on Earth, although only approximately 1.9 million have been identified.
5. 15,589 species are currently threatened with extinction -- 1 in 4 mammals and 1 in 8 birds. This number is increasing as habitats are continually diminished and degraded.
6. Many governments around the world have passed laws, like the Endangered Species Act, designed to protect endangered species from extinction. Howver, more that 300 critically endangered, 237 endangered, and 267 vulnerable animal species have received minimal help due to lack of enforcement of laws.
7. Habitat change, over-exploitation, invasive alien species, pollution, and climate change are the most important direct drivers of change in ecosystems.
Succession:
8. There are 2 types of succession: primary succession and secondary succession.
9. Primary succession is accompanied by R-Strategists, who live in disturbed/transitory habitats that are characteristics of primary succession.
10. The satges of plant succession are annual plants, perennial plants, shrubs, softwood trees/pines, and hardwood trees.
Human Population Growth
ReplyDelete1. The crude birth rate of a population is the annual number of births per 1000 total of population.
2. There are several consequences of rapid population growth including: land abuse and loss of productivity, depletion of necessary natural resources and conflict over obtaining new sources, inability to grow enough food, which leads to hunger and famine, social, economic and security crises and threats, and harm to wild and nature.
3. 85% of the worlds population lies in Europe and Asia
4. 96% of the projected addition of 3.6 billion people during the period between now and 2030 will occur in developing nations, where the overall growth rate is 2.1% per year
5. To stop unhealthy population growth, the U.N. Conference on Population in Cairo in 1994, 179 nations endorsed a new "Program of Action" that ca,,ed on governments to provide universal access to reproductive health care by 2015 as a global human rights imperative.
6. The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) is the main international source of population assistance to developing countries. The Fund supports Programs to improve pre and post-natal mother's health, to provide access to voluntary family planning programs and contraception, to support education on sexually transmitted diseases and HIV, and to formulate population policies that support sustainable development and poverty eradication.
7. China, which has the largest population in the world, has attempted to control its population growth by offering incentives to people who only have one child.
8. India is expected to pass China as the worlds most populous nation, as it is expected to reach 2 billion mark in 2025.
9. Death rates have begun to sore due to : higher instances of HIV, depletion of aquifers, and shrinking cropland area per person.
10. Everyday, a quarter of a million people are added to the world. Every year, 87 million people are added to the world.